Traditionally, the aesthetics of music or musical aesthetics concentrated on the quality and study of the beauty and enjoyment (plaisir and jouissance This sexual connotation lacking in the English word "enjoyment", and is therefore left untranslated in English editions of the works of Jacques Lacan.. In his Seminar "The Ethics of Psychoanalysis" (1959-1960) Lacan develops his concept of the opposition of jouissance and pleasure. The pleasure principle, according to Lacan,) of music. Aesthetics is a sub-discipline of philosophy. However, many musicians, music critics, and other non-philosophers have contributed to the aesthetics of music. In recent decades philosophers have tended to emphasize issues besides beauty and enjoyment.

It is often thought that music has the ability to affect our emotions An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings, thoughts, and behavior. Emotions are subjective experiences, or experienced from an individual point of view. Emotion is often associated with mood, temperament, personality, and disposition. The English word 'emotion' is derived from the French word é, intellect Intelligence is an umbrella term used to describe a property of the mind that encompasses many related abilities, such as the capacities to reason, to plan, to solve problems, to think abstractly, to comprehend ideas, to use language, and to learn. There are several ways to define intelligence. In some cases, intelligence may include traits such, and our psychology Psychology is an academic and applied discipline involving the systematic, and often scientific, study of human/animal mental functions and behavior. Occasionally, in addition or opposition to employing the scientific method, it also relies on symbolic interpretation and critical analysis, although it often does so less prominently than other; lyrics Lyrics are a set of words that make up a song. The writer of lyrics is a lyricist or lyrist. The meaning of lyrics can either be explicit or implicit. Some lyrics are abstract, almost unintelligible, and, in such cases, their explication emphasizes form, articulation, meter, and symmetry of expression. The lyricist of traditional musical forms can assuage our loneliness or incite our passions. For this reason, the philosopher Plato Plato (Greek: Πλάτων, Plátōn, "broad") (428/427 BC[a] – 348/347 BC), was a Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, the first institution of higher learning in the Western world. Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped proposed that music is a dangerous entertainment that should be closely regulated by the state. (Plato, Book VII)

It is commonly believed that human responses to music are culturally influenced. For example, musical passages in Beethoven Ludwig van Beethoven (pronounced /ˈlʊdvɪɡ væn ˈbeɪtoʊvɨn/; German pronunciation: [ˈluːt.vɪç fan ˈbeːt.hoːfən] German pronunciation , 16 December 1770 – 26 March 1827) was a German composer and pianist. He was a crucial figure in the transitional period between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western classical music, and that sounded highly dissonant to his contemporaries does not sound dissonant to listeners today. As such, music's aesthetic appeal seems highly dependent upon the culture in which it is practiced, however there is a physical background which defines sound being proper or improper^[1]. Proper sound is perceived as gentle sound while improper sound is more or less considered nice sounding depending on what the listener is used to listen to. Harry Partch Harry Partch was an American composer and instrument creator. He was one of the first twentieth-century composers to work extensively and systematically with microtonal scales, writing much of his music for custom-made instruments that he built himself, tuned in 11-limit just intonation and some other musicologists Musicology is the scholarly study of music. The word is used in narrow, broad and intermediate senses. In the narrow sense, musicology is confined to the music history of Western culture. In the intermediate sense, it includes all relevant cultures and a range of musical forms, styles, genres and traditions. In the broad sense, it includes all like for instance Kyle Gann therefore have studied and tried to popularize microtonal music Microtonal music is music using microtones — intervals of less than an equally spaced semitone. Microtonal music can also refer to music which uses intervals not found in the Western system of 12 equal intervals to the octave and the usage of alternate musical scales In music, a scale is a group of musical notes collected in ascending and descending order, that provides material for or is used to conveniently represent part or all of a musical work including melody and/or harmony. Scales are ordered in pitch or pitch class, with their ordering providing a measure of musical distance. Also many modern composers like Lamonte Young La Monte Thornton Young is an American composer and musician, Rhys Chatham Rhys Chatham is an American composer, guitarist, and trumpet player, primarily active in avant-garde and minimalist music. He is best known for his "guitar orchestra" compositions. He has lived in France since 1987 and Glenn Branca Glenn Branca is a highly influential avant-garde composer and guitarist known for his use of volume, alternate tuned guitars, repetition, droning, and the harmonic series paid much attention to a scale called just intonation In music, just intonation is any musical tuning in which the frequencies of notes are related by ratios of whole numbers. Any interval tuned in this way is called a just interval; in other words, the two notes are members of the same harmonic series.

Some of the aesthetic elements expressed in music include lyricism Lyrics are a set of words that make up a song. The writer of lyrics is a lyricist or lyrist. The meaning of lyrics can either be explicit or implicit. Some lyrics are abstract, almost unintelligible, and, in such cases, their explication emphasizes form, articulation, meter, and symmetry of expression. The lyricist of traditional musical forms, harmony Harmony in music is the simultaneous use of different pitches to make chords. Harmonics are wavelengths or frequencies related to one another by simple proportions. The study of harmony involves harmonic progressions and the structural principles that govern them. Harmony is often said to refer to the "vertical" aspect of music, as, hypnotism Hypnosis is a mental state or set of attitudes (nonstate theory) usually induced by a procedure known as a hypnotic induction, which is commonly composed of a series of preliminary instructions and suggestions. Hypnotic suggestions may be delivered by a hypnotist in the presence of the subject ("hetero-suggestion"), or may be self-, emotiveness An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings, thoughts, and behavior. Emotions are subjective experiences, or experienced from an individual point of view. Emotion is often associated with mood, temperament, personality, and disposition. The English word 'emotion' is derived from the French word é, temporal dynamics, resonance In physics, resonance is the tendency of a system to oscillate at larger amplitude at some frequencies than at others. These are known as the system's resonance frequencies . At a resonant frequency the frequency of oscillation does not change with changing amplitude. Therefore, at these frequencies, even small periodic driving forces can produce, playfulness, and color (see also musical development In European classical music, musical development is a process by which a musical idea is communicated in the course of a composition. It refers to the transformation and restatement of initial material, and is often contrasted with musical variation, which is a slightly different means to the same end. Development is carried out upon portions of). However, there has been a strong tendency in the aesthetics of music to emphasize musical structure as the most important (or even only) aesthetic element that is important in the experience of music.

History: Aesthetics and European classical music

1700s

In the 1700s, music was considered to be so far outside the realm of aesthetic theory (then conceived of in visual terms) that music was barely mentioned in William Hogarth William Hogarth was a major English painter, printmaker, pictorial satirist, social critic and editorial cartoonist who has been credited with pioneering western sequential art. His work ranged from excellent realistic portraiture to comic strip-like series of pictures called "modern moral subjects". Much of his work, though at times's treatise, The Analysis of Beauty The Analysis of Beauty is a book written by William Hogarth and published in 1753, which describes Hogarth's theories of visual beauty and grace in a manner accessible to the common man of his day. He considered dance Dance is a sport and art form that generally refers to movement of the body, usually rhythmic and to music, used as a form of expression, social interaction or presented in a spiritual or performance setting beautiful (closing the treatise with a discussion of the minuet), but treated of music only insofar as it could provide the proper accompaniment for the dancers. However, by the end of the century the topic of music and its own beauty came to be distinguished from cases in which music is part of a mixed media presentation, as it is in opera and dance. Immanuel Kant Immanuel Kant was an 18th-century German philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia). He is regarded as one of the most influential thinkers of modern Europe and of the late Enlightenment, whose Critique of Judgment is generally considered the most important and influential work on aesthetics in the 1700s, argued that instrumental music is beautiful but ultimately trivial. Compared to the other fine arts, it does not engage the understanding sufficiently and it lacks moral purpose. In order to display the combination of genius and taste that combines ideas and beauty, respectively, music must be combined with words, as in song and opera.

1800s

In the 19th century, the era of romanticism Romanticism is a complex artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Western Europe, and gained strength during the Industrial Revolution. It was partly a revolt against aristocratic social and political norms of the Age of Enlightenment and a reaction against the scientific in music, some composers and music critics argued that music should and could express ideas, images, emotions, or even a whole literary plot. Challenging Kant's reservations about instrumental music, in 1813 E. T. A. Hoffman argued that the art of music was fundamentally the art of instrumental composition. Five years later, Arthur Schopenhauer Arthur Schopenhauer was a German philosopher known for his atheistic pessimism and philosophical clarity. At age 25, he published his doctoral dissertation, On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason, which examined the fundamental question of whether reason alone can unlock answers about the world. Schopenhauer's most influential's The World as Will and Representation The World as Will and Representation is the central work of German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer. It was published in December 1818 argued that instrumental music is the greatest art, because it is uniquely capable of representing the metaphysical organization of reality. Although the Romantic movement accepted the thesis that instrumental music has representational capacities, most did not support Schopenhauer's linking of music and metaphysics. The mainstream consensus endorsed music's capacity to represent particular emotions and situations. In 1832, composer Robert Schumann Robert Schumann, sometimes given as Robert Alexander Schumann, was a German composer, aesthete and influential music critic. He is one of the most famous Romantic composers of the 19th century stated that his piano work Papillons was "intended as a musical representation" of the final scene of a novel by Jean Paul Jean Paul , born Johann Paul Friedrich Richter, was a German Romantic writer, best known for his humorous novels and stories, Flegeljahre. The thesis that the value of music is related to its representational function was vigorously countered by the formalism It can refer to a set of beliefs in philosophy, art, literature, or music of Eduard Hanslick Hanslick was born in Prague, the son of Joseph Adolph Hanslick, a bibliographer and music teacher from a German-speaking family, and one of his piano pupils, the daughter of a Jewish merchant from Vienna. At the age of 18 Hanslick went to study music with Tomášek, one of Prague's most important musicians. He also studied law at Prague University, setting off the "War of the Romantics." This fight divided the aesthetics into two competing groups. On one side are formalists (e.g., Hanslick), who emphasize that the rewards of music are found in appreciation of musical form or design. On the other side are the anti-formalists, such as Schumann and Richard Wagner Wilhelm Richard Wagner was a German composer, conductor, theatre director and essayist, primarily known for his operas (or "music dramas", as they were later called). Unlike most other great opera composers, Wagner wrote both the scenario and libretto for his works, who regarded musical form as a mere means to other artistic ends.

By the end of the 19th century, psychologist William James William James was a pioneering American psychologist and philosopher trained as a medical doctor. He wrote influential books on the young science of psychology, educational psychology, psychology of religious experience and mysticism, and the philosophy of pragmatism. He was the brother of novelist Henry James and of diarist Alice James gave the auditory and optical sensations equal billing in his discussion of aesthetics. But he also took a detached view of the classical/romanticist disputes. James wrote that "Complex suggestiveness, the awakening of vistas of memory and association, and the stirring of our flesh with picturesque mystery and gloom, make a work of art romantic." He stated that the "classic taste brands these effects as coarse and tawdry, and prefers the naked beauty of the optical and auditory sensations, unadorned with frippery or foliage."

1900s

A group of modernist Modernism, in its broadest definition, is modern thought, character, or practice. More specifically, the term describes both a set of cultural tendencies and an array of associated cultural movements, originally arising from wide-scale and far-reaching changes to Western society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. The term writers in the early twentieth century (including the poet Ezra Pound Ezra Weston Loomis Pound was an American expatriate poet, critic and intellectual who was a major figure of the Modernist movement in the first half of the 20th century. He is generally considered the poet most responsible for defining and promoting a modernist aesthetic in poetry. The critic Hugh Kenner said of Pound upon meeting him: "I) believed that music was essentially pure because it didn't represent anything, or make reference to anything beyond itself. In a sense, they wanted to bring poetry closer to Hanslick's ideas about the autonomous, self-sufficient character of music. (Bucknell 2002) Dissenters from this view, notably Albert Schweitzer Albert Schweitzer was a German-French theologian, musician, philosopher, and physician. He was born in Kaysersberg in the province of Elsass-Lothringen (Alsace-Lorraine), at the time in the German Empire. Schweitzer challenged both the secular view of Jesus as depicted by historical-critical methodology current at his time in certain academic, argued against the alleged 'purity' of music in a classic work on Bach Johann Sebastian Bach (31 March 1685 [O.S. 21 March] – 28 July 1750) was a German composer and organist whose sacred and secular works for choir, orchestra, and solo instruments drew together the strands of the Baroque period and brought it to its ultimate maturity. Although he introduced no new forms, he enriched the prevailing German style. Far from being a new debate, this disagreement between modernists and their critics was a direct continuation of the nineteenth-century debate about the autonomy of music.

Among twentieth century composers, Igor Stravinsky Igor Fyodorovich Stravinsky (17 June [O.S. 5 June] 1882 – 6 April 1971) was a Russian composer, pianist, and conductor, widely acknowledged as one of the most important and influential composers of 20th century music. He was a quintessentially cosmopolitan Russian who was named by Time magazine as one of the 100 most influential people of the is the most prominent composer to defend the modernist idea of musical autonomy. When a composer creates music, Stravinsky claims, the only relevant thing "is his apprehension of the contour of the form, for the form is everything. He can say nothing whatever about meanings." (Stravinsky 1962, p. 115) Although listeners often look for meanings in music, Stravinsky warned that these are distractions from the musical experience.

The most distinctive development in the aesthetics of music in the 1900s was attention directed at the distinction between 'higher' and 'lower' music, now understood to align with the distinction between art and popular music Popular music belongs to any of a number of musical genres, and stands in contrast to art music, and traditional music which was disseminated orally. Although popular music sometimes is known as "pop music", the term pop music usually refers to a specific musical genre, respectively. Theodor Adorno Theodor Ludwig Wiesengrund Adorno was a German-born international sociologist, philosopher, musicologist, and composer. He was a member of the Frankfurt School along with Max Horkheimer, Walter Benjamin, Herbert Marcuse, Jürgen Habermas, and others. He was also the Music Director of the Radio Project from 1937 to 1941, in the U.S suggested that culture industries churn out a debased mass of unsophisticated, sentimental products which have replaced the more 'difficult' and critical art forms which might lead people to actually question social life. False needs False consciousness is the Marxist thesis that material and institutional processes in capitalist society are misleading to the proletariat, and to other classes. These processes betray the true relations of forces between those classes, and the real state of affairs regarding the development of pre-socialist society are cultivated in people by the culture industries. These are needs which can be both created and satisfied by the capitalist system, and which replace people's 'true' needs - freedom, full expression of human potential and creativity, genuine creative happiness. Thus, those who are trapped in the false notions of beauty according to a capitalist mode of thinking, are only capable of hearing beauty in dishonest terms.

Beginning with Peter Kivy's work in the 1970s, analytic philosophy Analytic philosophy is a generic term for a style of philosophy that came to dominate English-speaking countries in the 20th century. In the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Scandinavia, Australia, and New Zealand, the overwhelming majority of university philosophy departments identify themselves as "analytic" departments has contributed extensively to the aesthetics of music. Analytic philosophy pays very little attention to the topic of musical beauty. Instead, Kivy inspired extensive debate about the nature of emotional expressiveness in music. He also contributed to the debate over the nature of authentic performances of older music, and he argues that much of the debate is incoherent because it fails to distinguish among four distinct standards of authentic performance Historically informed performance is an approach, or movement, in the performance of classical music. Members of this movement usually play on period instruments, and utilise historical treatises, as well as additional historical evidence, to gain insight into performance practice (the stylistic and technical aspects of performance). Historically of music (1995).

Popular music

Bad music

Simon Frith Simon Frith is a former rock critic and a sociologist who specializes in popular music culture. He read PPE at Oxford and did a doctorate in Sociology at UC Berkeley. He is the author of many books including his first, The Sociology of Rock, ISBN 0-09-460220-4, Sound Effects , Art into Pop ([Methuen, 1987] written with Howard Horne), Music for (2004, p.17-9) argues that, "'bad music' is a necessary concept for musical pleasure, for musical aesthetics." He distinguishes two common kinds of bad music; the Worst Records Ever Made type, which include "Tracks which are clearly incompetent musically; made by singers who can't sing, players who can't play, producers who can't produce," and "Tracks involving genre confusion. The most common examples are actors or TV stars recording in the latest style." Another type of "bad music" is "rock critical lists," such as *"Tracks that feature sound gimmicks that have outlived their charm or novelty" and "Tracks that depend on false sentiment (...), that feature an excess of feeling molded into a radio-friendly pop song."

Frith gives three common qualities attributed to bad music: inauthentic, [in] bad taste (see also: kitsch), and stupid. He argues that "The marking off of some tracks and genres and artists as 'bad' is a necessary part of popular music pleasure; it is a way we establish our place in various music worlds. And 'bad' is a key word here because it suggests that aesthetic and ethical judgements are tied together here: not to like a record is not just a matter of taste; it is also a matter of argument, and argument that matters." (p.28)

Frith's analysis of popular music is based in sociology.

Philosophical aesthetics of popular music

Theodor Adorno Theodor Ludwig Wiesengrund Adorno was a German-born international sociologist, philosopher, musicologist, and composer. He was a member of the Frankfurt School along with Max Horkheimer, Walter Benjamin, Herbert Marcuse, Jürgen Habermas, and others. He was also the Music Director of the Radio Project from 1937 to 1941, in the U.S is the most prominent philosopher to write on the aesthetics of popular music. A Marxist Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, though the name "Marxism" has been used by many with political perspectives those men would likely reject. Marxism is a political-economic theory that presents a materialist conception of history, a non-capitalist vision of, Adorno is extremely hostile to popular music. He formulated his theory in response to the growing popularity of American music in Europe between World War I and World War II. As a result, Adorno often uses "jazz" as his example of what is wrong with popular music. However, for Adorno this term includes everyone from Louis Armstrong to Bing Crosby. He attacks all popular music as simplistic and repetitive, and for encouraging a fascist mindset (1973, p. 126). However good or bad it sounds to its audience, music is genuinely good only if it fulfils a positive political function. Although many popular musicians seem superficially to oppose the political status quo, their use of familiar song forms and their involvement in capitalism results in music that ultimately encourages the audience accept things as they are. Only genuinely experimental music can encourage audiences to become critical of prevailing society. However, the mass media cannot handle the confrontational nature of good music, and offers instead a steady diet of recycled, simplified and politically ineffective music.

Besides Adorno, Theodore Gracyk provides the most extensive philosophical analysis of popular music. He argues that conceptual categories and distinctions developed in response to "art" music are systematically misleading when applied to popular music (1996).

In Germany, the musicologist Ralf von Appen (2007) has published a book on the aesthetics of popular music that focusses on everyday judgements of popular records. He analyses the structures and aesthetic categories behind judgements found on amazon.com concerning records by musicians such as Bob Dylan, Eminem, Queens of the stone age etc. In a second step, von Appen interprets these findings on the basis of current theoretical positions in the field of philosophical aesthetics.

See also

• List of aesthetic principles of music
• Music theory Music theory is the field of study that deals with how music works. It examines the language and notation of music. It identifies patterns that govern composers' techniques. In a grand sense, music theory distills and analyzes the parameters or elements of music – rhythm, harmony , melody, structure, form, and texture. Broadly, music theory may

Footnotes

1. ^ http://www.furious.com/perfect/experimentalstringinstruments.html article about universal laws of consonance based on physical laws

References

• Adorno, Theodor W. Essays on Music. Richard Leppert (ed.) Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002.
• Adorno, Theodor W. Philosophy of Modern Music. Anne G. Mitchell and Wesley V. Blomster (trans.) New York: Seabury Press, 1973.
• Appen, Ralf von (2007). "On the aesthetics of popular music." Music Therapy Today Vol. VIII (1), 5-25. Online: Music Therapy Today
• Appen, Ralf von (2007). Der Wert der Musik. Zur Ästhetik des Populären. Bielefeld: Transcript. ISBN 3-89942-734-3
• Bucknell, Brad (2002). Literary Modernism and Musical Aesthetics. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University The University of Cambridge , located in Cambridge, England, is the second oldest university in the English-speaking world. The name is sometimes abbreviated as Cantab. in post-nominals, a shortened form of Cantabrigiensis (an adjective derived from Cantabrigia, the Latinised form of Cambridge) Press. ISBN 0-521-66028-9.
• Frith, Simon. "What is Bad Music" in Washburne, Christopher J. and Derno, Maiken (eds.) (2004). Bad Music: The Music We Love to Hate. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-94366-3.
• Gracyk, Theodore. Rhythm and Noise: An Aesthetics of Rock. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996.
• Kant, Immanuel. Kritik der Urteilskraft, Kants gesammelte Schriften, Volume 5, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1902–. Translated as Critique of the Power of Judgment. Paul Guyer (ed.), Paul Guyer and Eric Matthews (trans.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
• Kivy, Peter. Authenticities: Philosophical Reflections on Musical Performance. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995. ISBN 0801430461.
• Kivy, Peter. Sound Sentiment: An Essay on the Musical Emotions Including the Complete Text of the Corded Shell. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989.
• Plato, The Republic. Translated by Benjamin Jowett. Oxford University Press: 1894. [1]
• Schopenhauer, Arthur. The World as Will and Representation. Dover. Volume I, ISBN 0-486-21761-2. Volume II, ISBN 0-486-21762-0
• Stravinsky, Igor, with Robert Craft, Expositions and Developments. New York: Doubleday, 1962.

Further reading

• Alperson, Philip (ed.), What is Music?. New York, NY: Haven, 1987.
• Bowman, Wayne D. Philosophical Perspectives on Music. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998.
• Budd, Malcolm. Music and the Emotions: The Philosophical Theories. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. 1985.
• Davies, Stephen. Musical Meaning and Expression, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1994.
• Davies, Stephen. Musical Works and Performances: A Philosophical Exploration. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001.
• Gracyk, Theodore. "Adorno, Jazz, and the Aesthetics of Popular Music," The Musical Quarterly 76 no. 4 (Winter 1992): 526-42.
• Gracyk, Theodore. Listening to Popular Music: Or How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love Led Zeppelin. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2007.
• Hanslick, Eduard (1885/1957). Vom Musikalisch-Schönen. Tr. The Beautiful In Music. Bobbs-Merrill Co (June 1957). ISBN 0672602113.
• Higgins, Kathleen M. The Music of Our Lives. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1991.
• Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. "The Magic of Music: Archaic Dreams in Romantic Aesthetics and an Education in Aesthetics." Philosophy of Music Education Review 13 no. 1 (Spring 2005): 77-94.
• Kertz-Welzel, Alexandra. "In Search of the Sense and the Senses: Aesthetic Education in Germany and the United States." Journal of Aesthetic Education 39 no. 3 (Fall 2005): 104-116.
• Kivy, Peter. New Essays on Musical Understanding. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 9780198250838.
• Lippman, Edward. A History of Western Musical Aesthetics. University of Nebraska Press, 1992.
• Scruton, Roger. The Aesthetics of Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. ISBN 9780198167273.

External links

• The Aesthetics of Popular Music (on-line encyclopedia entry)
• "On the aesthetics of popular music" by Ralf von Appen
• The Philosophy of Music (on-line encyclopedia entry)
• Schumann, a Romantic-era composer (on-line biography)

Categories: Philosophy of music

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• Aesthetics of Music
• Music
• Musician
• Musicology
• Music Genre

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